How Bengali Literature Perceives Maratha Heroism

In a nearly-empty Kolkata theatre, watching a mortal man performing all sorts of miracles on the big screen바카라�from flying over enemy defence lines while riding on his horse and breaking a lion바카라�s jaws with bare hands to singlehandedly defeating hundreds of warriors at once바카라�comes as a shock. Equally horrible is to see his handful of army men wiping out an entire cavalry of a fierce army while hanging from trees, and upon emerging from beneath the ground and water, taking their enemies by surprise.

A much bigger concern, however, lies in the manipulation of history aimed to serve a majoritarian propaganda. Based on a novel of the same name by Marathi author Shivaji Sawant and directed by Laxman Utekar, 바카라�Chhaava바카라�, released on February 14, 2025, which portrays Chhatrapati Sambhaji Bhonsle (played by Vicky Kaushal), the eldest son of Maratha legend Chhatrapati Shivaji Bhonsle, as a revolutionary superhero against Aurangzeb (played by Akshaye Khanna), is just another addition to the growing list of propaganda-servers.

Actress Swara Bhasker faced online trolling for pointing her finger at the manipulation, which includes a meticulous demonisation of Aurangzeb. The Cyber Cell of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led Maharashtra Government registered charges against four editors of Wikipedia for not taking necessary action even after being repeatedly informed about the 바카라�objectionable content바카라� on Sambhaji. Other controversies include objections from state ministers over a dance scene and a Rs. 100 crore defamation lawsuit by the descendants of Ganoji and Kanhoji Shirke바카라�shown as Mughal collaborators in the film바카라�for 바카라�tarnishing바카라� their ancestors바카라� image.

However, a much larger-scale backlash was from a section of Bengali academics, who took to social media alleging the film was shamelessly one-sided.

What바카라�s the Controversy?

Among various issues raised in the protests, some spoke about the horrors of the 18th century Bargi invasions, while others, while tracing the roots of today바카라�s neo-Islamophobia, pointed out the 19th century Hindu nationalism of colonial Bengal. Several professors restated what historians such as Sir Jadunath Sarkar and Ramesh Chandra Majumdar had said about Sambhaji. Some even sarcastically shared the denouncing comments V. D. Savarkar and M. S. Golwalkar바카라�godfathers of modern Hindutva politics바카라�made about Sambhaji.

Sarkar, a pre-eminent historiographer and Mughal-era expert, in his 바카라�Shivaji and His Times바카라� and 바카라�House of Shivaji바카라�, repeatedly condemned Sambhaji바카라�s (바카라�Shambhuji바카라� for Sarkar) desertion of Mughal commander Dilir Khan, acts of cruelty to his Brahmin subjects and debauchery, and even called him 바카라�the curse of his (Shivaji바카라�s) old age바카라�. For references, he mostly depended on accounts by European merchants.

Similarly, Majumdar, 19 years junior to Sarkar, in 바카라�The Mughal Empire바카라� (Vol. 7), highlighted Sambhaji바카라�s 바카라�rudeness, caprice and violence of spirit바카라�. The severity of the raids by Sambhaji바카라�s armies in captured cities, according to Majumdar, 바카라�serves as a typical example of the Maratha raid in future extending as far as Bengal, more than seventy years later바카라�.

Amazingly, to counter the theories of Marxist historians like Romila Thapar and Irfan Habib, Hindutva supporters have frequently resorted to Sarkar and Majumdar for their pro-Hindu nationalist views. But, irrespective of their personal beliefs, Sarkar and Majumdar never conformed to any form of historical negativism.

Anti-Right author Upal Mukhopadhyay argued that while 바카라�Chhaava바카라� largely deviates from true history, Sambhaji was never the 바카라�bad boy바카라� either. According to his research, Sambhaji was a great Sanskrit scholar, reported to have composed 바카라�The Budhabhusana바카라� and a competent ruler who carried his father바카라�s legacy of equity in the court.

How were the Marathas placed in Bengal바카라�s socio-cultural spectrum during the 18th and 19th centuries?

Repeated invasions by the Bargi troops of Nagpur King Raghuji Bhonsle, under commander Bhaskar Ram Kolhatkar, aka Bhaskar Pandit바카라�who received horses and equipment from the government바카라�to collect 바카라�chauth바카라� (one-fourth of the total revenue of a state) as part of their expansion policy in the mid-18th century, made the way for Maratha imperialism to get its place in the transitioning Bengali literature. The fear the troops evoked through looting millions and killing people바카라�around 4 lakh, as per Dutch sources바카라�over nine years (1742-1751) is manifested in a popular lullaby, a translation of which reads:

The children fell asleep, the silence set in, and came the Bargi;

The birds have eaten all the grains, how will I pay my tax?

Baneshwar Vidyalankar, a courtesan of Raja Krishnachandra Roy of Nadia and later Raja Chitra Sen Rai of Bardhaman, in 1744, penned down a Sanskrit narrative poem, 바카라�Chitrachompu바카라�바카라�considered the first-ever text to document the invasions.

바카라�Maharashtra Purana바카라�, a Bengali narrative poem composed in 1751-52 by Dewan Gangaram Dev Chowdhury, contains intricate details of the atrocities:

바카라�Stree purush adi kori jotek dekhiba.

Toloyay khuliya sob tahare katiba바카라�

Etek bochon jodi bolilo sardar

Chotudike lute kate bole marmar바카라�바카라�

Loosely translated, it would read:

바카라�Wherever you see men and women,

Slay everyone with your swords,

The moment the commander said,

Looting and killing started in all directions.바카라�

Ray Gunakor Bharatchandra바카라�s 바카라�Annadamangal바카라�, a three-part narrative poem eulogising goddess Annada, written around 1752-53, has a small mention of the menace in the chapter, 바카라�Granthasuchana바카라� (The Beginning). One memorable line that epitomises the looting, reads: 바카라�Nogor purile ki debaloy eray바카라� (If the city burns, can temples be left behind?) Both poets, despite recognising Bargi atrocities, cited Nawab Alivardi Khan바카라�s refusal to pay chauth and vandalise Odisha temples as reasons behind the invasions.

Nawab did his best, granting permission to dig the 바카라�Maratha Ditch바카라� in 1743 and killing Bhaskar Pandit by trickery in 1744. But the province바카라�s economy declined severely, the Nawab바카라�s rule weakened and soon, the British entered the scene.

After 바카라�Annadamangal바카라�, for a large part, the Marathas hardly found significance in Bengali literature. This may be largely attributed to the horrors they brought to the public psyche. James Todd바카라�s 바카라�Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan바카라� (1829)바카라�an early manifesto of the British rulers바카라� Hindu-Muslim antagonism바카라�glorified the Rajput warriors, undermined the Marathas, falsely depicted the Rajput-Mughal conflicts as Hindu-Muslim wars (which were actually wars between a dominant power and a regional power, with both religious communities having taken part in either side), and paved the way for more Rajput-glorifying Bengali works.

Bhudeb Mukhopadhyay바카라�s 1857 historical novella 바카라�Anguriya Binimoy바카라� (Exchange of Rings) is worth mentioning from this period that brings out an imaginary romantic tale between Shivaji and Roshinara, a daughter of Aurangzeb, and their tragic parting in the end. Kali Krishna Lahiri바카라�s 1869 novel, 바카라�Roshinara바카라�, follows a similar plot. Both authors drew influence from 바카라�The Mahratta Chief바카라�, a short story by Reverend John Hobart Caunter.

In reality, Aurangzeb had no daughter named Roshinara (in fact, Roshanara was Shah Jahan바카라�s third daughter), and the one rumoured to be in love with Shivaji was his eldest child, Zeb-un-Nissa, with no proper evidence to support this claim. Caunter바카라�s story even portrays Sambajee (Sambhaji) as the biological issue of Sevajee (Shivaji) and Rochinara (Roshinara)바카라�something which the Bengali authors consciously ignored.

바카라�Maharashtra Jiban-Prabhat바카라� (1878), on the other hand, maintains the historical integrity, courtesy its author Romesh Chunder Dutt being a professional historian. Life experiences of a fictional loyalist character, Raghunathji Havildar, constitute the core theme. Strikingly, long before Sarkar and Majumdar, Dutt first marked Sambhaji as 바카라�hot-tempered바카라� and 바카라�incompetent바카라�.

The aforementioned three novels바카라�all of which mentioned Shivaji as 바카라�Shibji바카라� or 바카라�Shivji바카라�, a practice common in the 19th century바카라�s Sanskrit-influenced Bengali바카라�follow the same theme of the Hindu-Muslim binary, labelling the Mughals as foreign invaders, dehumanising Aurangzeb and portraying Akbar as a 바카라�good and tolerant Muslim바카라� in the process.

Rise of Hindu Nationalism: 20th Century to Present

Dutt바카라�s novel laid the foundation for the Maratha cult to enter Bengal바카라�s socio-cultural spectrum, largely shaped by Hindu nationalist ideals. In 1895, Satya Churan Chatterji Shastri wrote the first Bengali biography of Shivaji, 바카라�Chhatrapati Maharaj Shibaji R Jibanchorit바카라�, which received widespread acclaim. To Shastri, Shivaji was the saviour of the Hindus and his greatness could be compared with that of Napoleon Bonaparte. Manomohan Basu바카라�s play 바카라�Shahzadi Roshinara바카라� (1901), another Bengali work centred on that imaginary love story, clearly declared that it would highlight Muslim tyranny during the era of 바카라�justice-serving and secular바카라� British rule.

Even Rabindranath Tagore followed the trend. His 1897 poem 바카라�Pratinidhi바카라� (The Representative) deals with the relationship between Shivaji and his spiritual teacher, Ramdas, while 바카라�Ponrokkha바카라� (Keeping the Vow), written in 1899, documents the resilience of a Rajput leader against Maratha invaders. For Maratha-based works, including 바카라�Sati바카라�, a verse drama featuring Maratha warrior Binayak Rao, his wife Ramabai and daughter Amabai, written around the same period, he depended on the translations by author Harry Arbuthnot Acworth.

The emergence of an orthodox Maratha Hindu like Bal Gangadhar Tilak as a national leader also contributed to this development. Following the Maharashtra model, Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar, an ardent Tilak-follower, organised the first 바카라�Shivaji Utsav바카라� in Calcutta in 1902. Deuskar persuaded Tagore to write one of his controversial poems, 바카라�Shibaji Utsab바카라�. He also wrote two essays, 바카라�Shibaji o Maratha Jati바카라� (Shivaji and the Marathas) and 바카라�Shibaji o Guru Gobinda Singh바카라� (Shivaji and Guru Govind Singh) simultaneously.

An innate humanist, Tagore, however, viewed Shivaji as a royal sage who could unite all castes and creeds. His deep curiosity and reading of bakhar literature led him to analyse the successes and failures of the Marathas from a historical perspective. Unhesitatingly, he could admit that it was not Shivaji who made Maratha great, but it was the Marathas as a nation that made him become a cult.

Later, sensing the evils of religious polarisation, Tagore would reject all forms of nationalism.

In the setting of a growing anti-colonial armed guerilla movement, Maratha heroics continued being the symbol of resistance. Playwright Girish Chandra Ghosh wrote 바카라�Chhatrapati바카라� in 1907, where one scene features Shivaji scolding Firangoji Narsala for not killing the betrayer Sambha, when the latter captured the Bhupalgarh Fort. A long form ballad by Jatindramohan Bagchi, 바카라�Pashar Baji바카라� (The Gamble), written in the 1920s, highlights the valour and sacrifice of Tanaji Malusare in the Battle of Sinhagad. Another play, Sachindranath Sengupta바카라�s 바카라�Goirik Pataka바카라� (The Saffron Flag), written during the fiery phase of armed revolution (1930), was dedicated to Subhas Chandra Bose.

The Bargi invasions sparked fresh interests, too. Taking references from 바카라�Siyar-Ul-Mutakherin: History of the Mahomedan Power in India during the Last Century바카라� by Mir Ghulam Hussein Khan, author Biharilal Sarkar wrote a comprehensive history, 바카라�Bange Bargi바카라� (Bargi in Bengal), in 1907. Sixteen years later, Nishikanta Basu Ray published an eponymous play that breaks the hero-villain binary, following a psychological line of interpretation. Brajendra Kumar De바카라�s 1951 opera, 바카라�Bargi Elo Deshe바카라�, on the other hand, glorifies Alivardi and villainises Pandit.

Nevertheless, the 19th century perspective did not wane. Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay, a Pune-resident known for creating the fictional detective Byomkesh Bakshi, wrote six short stories featuring Shivaji. While the first one, 바카라�Bagher Bachcha바카라� (The Tiger Cub), focuses on an adolescent Shivaji, his relationship with Dadoji Khondadeo, and the Rajput-Maratha ideological conflict, the other five바카라�written at the request of fellow author Rajshekhar Basu바카라�are about the rise of poor Sadashiv to a 바카라�Bargir바카라� in Shivaji바카라�s troops. Shivaji바카라�s depiction is more of a loving family-man, chasing the dream of establishing 바카라�Hindu Rajya바카라�.

Four more Sadashiv stories were in his thoughts, but his death in 1970 not only stopped them from getting materialised but also marked a hiatus in Maratha-based Bengali literature.

Three books recently published on the Bargi raids, including 바카라�Bange Bargihangama: Itihas o Kingbadanti바카라� (Bargi Menace in Bengal: Facts and Legends, 2019) and 바카라�Bargi Bidrohi바카라� (The Bargi Rebel, 2024) by Swapan Kumar Thakur, and 바카라�Banglay Bargi바카라� (Bargi in Bengal, 2024), edited by Manab Mondal, indicate a growing interest among researchers.

Sambhaji himself has appeared in Prativa Sarker바카라�s latest novel, 바카라�Khanchar Bhitor Achin Pakhi바카라� (Caging the Free Voice). 바카라�Sambhaji is not the protagonist,바카라� as Sarker explained, 바카라�The peculiar blend of his cruelty towards conspirators and love towards Dalits sparked my interest. Upon consulting a range of books, I tried to make an objective analysis of his character.바카라�

Taking her words into account, it will be intriguing to see if Bengali literature will perceive Maratha heroism, and if so, how바카라�especially in this age of religious polarisation, in which Maharashtra has played its historical part.

(Views expressed are personal)

Soham Das is a Kolkata-based bilingual author and independent researcher who takes special interest in culture, history and politics

This article is a part of Outlook's April 1, 2025 issue 'World At Reset', which explores the ongoing changes in the global geopolitical order. It appeared in print as 'Shivaji바카라�s Rabindra Sangeet'.