From the mid-19th century, socialist and communist ideals stormed Europe and America with many radical ideas involving not only the mode of production and ownership but also love and sex.
In Czech novelist Milan Kundera바카라s short story Lost Letters Part I, when Mirek and Zdena are on their way home in a streetcar after making love for the first time, he finds her sitting on a corner bench in the jolting streetcar, 바카라Her face sullen, closed, surprisingly old.바카라 Asking about her silence, Mirek learns that she had not been satisfied with their lovemaking. She says he made love to her 바카라like an intellectual바카라.
바카라In the political jargon of those days, the word 바카라intellectual바카라 was an insult. It indicated someone who did not understand life and was cut off from the people,바카라 Kundera wrote.
It was not clear to Mirek what exactly Zdena meant by making love like an intellectual. It was, perhaps, for the lack of a better language, that she used it to express her dissatisfaction. Nevertheless, it was probably an impact of the communist revolution that encouraged Czech women to freely express their sexual feelings.
As historian Kateřina Lišková points out, in the early years of communist rule in Czechoslovakia in the 1950s, women were equal to men not only at work and according to the law, but also in expert discussions on sexuality and marriage. The party preached women바카라s equal right to orgasm. In the early 1950s, the government even embarked on nationwide research into the female orgasm.
About a century before, from the mid-19th century, socialist and communist ideals stormed Europe and America with many radical ideas involving not only the mode of production and ownership, but also love and sex. The early socialists, including Frenchman Charles Fourier and British Robert Owen, came up with sweeping attacks on the existing family structure, advocated the abolition of marriage and some even advocated 바카라free love바카라.
The early socialists came up with sweeping attacks on the existing family structure, advocated the abolition of marriage and some even advocated 바카라free love바카라.
According to historian Richard Weikart of California State University, although Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were not the instigators of the anti-family trend among socialists, they바카라especially Engels바카라바카라contributed mightily to it바카라. Going against the dominant moralities, they preferred love marriages over those arranged by parents and were pro-abortion and pro-divorce.
Engels, in his The Origin of Family, Private Property and State, argued that monogamy in modern civilisation was 바카라supplemented by adultery and prostitution바카라, which was available for men. Marriages were determined by convenience or material advantage, either by the parents or the partners. The chivalrous love of the Middle Ages was by no means conjugal, he said, adding, 바카라It heads straight for adultery and the poets of love celebrated adultery.바카라
In contrast, in the new society, private housekeeping would be transformed into a social industry, and the care and education of the children바카라whether legitimate or not바카라would become a public affair. This would free women from the chain of household tasks and remove all the anxiety about the moral and economic consequences that prevent 바카라a girl from giving herself completely to the man she loves바카라, Engels thought.
바카라Will not that suffice to bring about the gradual growth of unconstrained sexual intercourse and with it a more tolerant public opinion in regard to a maiden바카라s honour and a woman바카라s shame?바카라 Engles asked. He imagined that in the new society, generations would grow up, with men not knowing 바카라what it is to buy a woman바카라s surrender바카라 and women not considering anything other than real love while engaging with a man.
Such backgrounds made many think that the coming revolution would also bring about a sexual revolution and radicalise romantic relationships. 바카라The sexual act must be seen not as something shameful and sinful but as something which is as natural as the other needs of healthy organisms such as hunger and thirst,바카라 influential Bolshevik revolutionary and feminist Alexandra Kollontai famously wrote in a 1921 article.
In a 2011 article, titled Love in the Time of Communism: A Case Study in Revolutionary Overreach, Sam Feldman showed that in Russia, decrees and legal reforms between 1917 and 1926 removed many government restrictions on sex and relationships. Divorce became as simple as filling out a form and waiting for three days. Couples were allowed to cohabitate and marry without informing the State. 바카라Abortion, although frowned upon, became freely available and free.바카라
The reversal in Russia started taking formal shape in the mid-1930s. Male homosexuality was re-criminalised in 1934, partly in response to reduced childbirth rate and increased abortions. Abortion was banned in 1936.
However, it did not take even a decade for reversals to start, not only in Soviet Russia but also in other countries where such revolutions happened. First, the party got involved, and then the State. After all, they did not consider love to be a 바카라private바카라 affair, as it involved more than one individual.
Looking at every aspect of human existence from the prism of class divisions, communists distinguished between bourgeois love and proletarian love바카라the first separates the couple from society, and the second strengthens the couple바카라s bond with the collective.
In general, top communist theoreticians and practitioners spent much less time on discussing romantic and passionate love between individuals than on other subjects involving collective goals. In times of revolution, individual love had to take a backseat, they believed.
At the heart of socialist ideas on relationships was gender politics바카라the question of women바카라s empowerment and liberation. Socialists and communists aimed at making women equal partners in every relationship. But for many of them, issues like women바카라s liberation and freedom of love would come on their own when the politico-economic revolution was successful.
This is evident from the conversations that German communist leader and women바카라s organiser, Clara Zetkin, had with Vladimir Lenin, who led the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in November 1917. Zetkin recalled that in the immediate post-revolution years, Lenin told her that he could not believe his ears when he heard that questions of sex and marriage were the main subjects dealt with in the reading and discussion evenings of women comrades in Germany.
바카라Is now the time to amuse proletarian women with discussions on how one loves and is loved, how one marries and is married?바카라 Zetkin quoted Lenin as asking. He advised that it was time when all the thoughts of women comrades must be directed toward the proletarian revolution, which would create the basis for 바카라a real renovation in marriage and sexual relations바카라.
By that time, Kollontai바카라s comparison of sex with hunger and thirst had popularly metamorphosed into the 바카라glass of water theory바카라, suggesting that in a communist society, the satisfaction of sexual desires will be as simple and unimportant as drinking a glass of water.
Lenin was evidently disturbed by the popularity of the theory, saying that it made the young generation 바카라mad, quite mad바카라 and 바카라proved fatal to many young boys and girls바카라. Lenin called the theory un-Marxist and anti-social, arguing that drinking water is an individual바카라s matter, but love and sex involved more than one and could lead to the birth of new lives.
One of the outcomes of romantic affairs taking a backseat due to the urgency of the Soviet revolution was what Kollontai, in a 1923 speech, highlighted an increase in 바카라Wingless Eros바카라. The term referred to sex without attachment and mutual obligations, which 바카라does not give rise to sleepless nights, soften the will, or entangle the rational workings of the mind바카라.
This form of relationship became dominant because 바카라Winged Eros바카라바카라바카라love woven from the finest strands of every kind of emotion바카라바카라is 바카라demanding바카라. Men and women had 바카라neither the time nor the spare inner strength for love바카라s joys and tortures바카라.
However, as the situation calmed down with the Bolsheviks coming to power, the youth were now rediscovering 바카라Winged Eros바카라. This had to be addressed, as complexities arising out of it would impact society. She encouraged falling for 바카라Winged Eros,바카라 as it awakens empathy, compassion, and the desire to help each other, the qualities the builders of a new society require.
Kollontai also stressed that since proletarian ideology subordinates the love between two members of a collective to the more powerful emotion of love-duty to the collective, exclusivity in love, like 바카라all-consuming바카라 love, cannot be the ideal in working class ideology. 바카라Bourgeois morality demanded: everything for the one you love. The morality of the proletariat demands: everything for the collective,바카라 she said.
Reversals in the Soviet Union started quite soon. Psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich wrote that during his visit to Moscow in 1929, he heard the youth were being imparted sex education. 바카라It was immediately evident that this enlightenment was antisexual. Essentially, it was nothing but information about venereal diseases and about conception, in order to scare the youngsters away from sexual intercourse,바카라 wrote Reich in his 1945 book, The Sexual Revolution.
While elaborating on the communist misconception about love and sexuality, Reich cited how communist leader Gertrude Alexander wrote in 1927, 바카라Unrequited love, with its danger of loneliness and pain, will hardly play a role in a society which sets collective tasks and offers collective joys, a society in which individual sorrows are no longer important.바카라 바카라Few people know how burning was the struggle for the 바카라new life바카라, for a satisfactory sex life, in the Soviet Union,바카라 Reich wrote.
In reality, communists바카라more than social democrats바카라struggled between radicalising the concept of man-woman relationships and replacing one set of conservative morality with another.
The reversal in Russia started taking formal shape in the mid-1930s. Male homosexuality was re-criminalised in 1934. In part, as a response to reduced childbirth rate and increased abortions, abortion was banned in 1936. By the early 1940s, marriages had to be registered with the State, and divorce became difficult. The government also announced subsidies to encourage childbirth.
In Leftist organisations, from top leaders to grassroots-level workers, many organisers married the love of their life. Communist parties and their frontal organisations and even armed squads worldwide have had a fair share of couples who met each other during party programmes and got married. But falling in love had its own difficulties under communist rule, as volumes of literature from communist-ruled countries show.
Similarly, in post-revolution Hungary of the 1950s, as László Kürti, a professor at Rice University, USA, points out, a popular slogan said, 바카라For a married woman to bear a child is an obligation; for a girl, it is honour.바카라 Child-bearing mothers were identified as progressive and socialist; they received maternity leave and supplementary consumer goods. There even was a 바카라multiple-child bonus바카라. Abortion was outlawed, childless families were forced to pay a surtax, and contraception was available only in extreme circumstances.
There, of course, was the other trend as well. In the book Love in the Time of Communism: Intimacy and Sexuality in the German Democratic Republic, Josie McLellan showed divorce and abortion rates soared, as did the rate of birth outside marriage, after the foundation of the German Democratic Republic in 1949. Respondents to interviews by the author revealed that people living under the East German regime 바카라had more sex and we had more to laugh about바카라.
The sexual revolution was very much part of the discussion in the student movements of the 1960s that were essentially Leftist. In the US, T-shirts with 바카라communism, atheism, free love바카라 printed on them became a fashion craze among radical students during the 1960s and the 1970s.
In Czechoslovakia, the 1950s and 1960s saw fairly liberal ideas and practices바카라quite in contrast to Soviet Russia. But reversals started in the 1970s when women were taught to aspire to be caring mothers and docile wives.
In reality, communists바카라more than social democrats바카라struggled between radicalising the concept of man-woman relationships and replacing one set of conservative morality with another. When in power, they tended to take it upon themselves to determine which love affair was of societal benefit and which was not. As Popova wrote in Bulgaria바카라s context, 바카라Sexual needs must be denounced precisely because they have a distractive nature바카라they divert the individual from바카라 labour responsibilities.바카라