India and Pakistan share one of the most militarised borders in the world. Both countries employ extensive surveillance tools. Both pour millions into their defence budgets, maintain thousands of troops across the Line of Control (LoC) and the border, and even station them at altitudes above 20,000 feet바카라”at the Himalayan Siachen Glacier. Over the decades, the neighbours have experienced ceasefire violations, diplomatic disputes and territorial disagreements바카라”the latest escalation being the April 22, 2025, Pahalgam terror attack in Kashmir, triggering the retaliatory Operation Sindoor by India. Eventually, on May 10, a ceasefire was declared, de-escalating the crossfire between India and Pakistan.
1947: Standstill Agreement Over the Indus
The Partition in 1947 bifurcated the Indus River system, which was crucial for irrigation. The short-term Standstill Agreement was signed to allow the flow of water from India to Pakistan. After the agreement expired, by April 1, 1948, India started to withhold water from the Indus canals. However, the Inter-Dominion Accord of May 4, 1948, mandated India to provide water to Pakistan in return for annual payments.
1949: Karachi Agreement
After the First Kashmir War of 1947-48바카라”fought over the then princely state of Jammu and Kashmir바카라”military representatives from both countries met in Karachi under the supervision of a United Nations Commission. The July 18-27, 1949, meeting established a ceasefire in the region to complement the suspension of hostilities. The Ceasefire Line, demarcating the Indian-administered and Pakistani-administered parts of the former princely state, was set down.
1950: Nehru-Liaquat Pact
Also known as the Delhi Pact, signed on April 8, 1950, it addressed the treatment and security of minorities in both countries. The pact was signed by the then prime ministers of India and Pakistan, Jawaharlal Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan. Both governments ensured equality of citizenship, security, freedom of movement, occupation, and worship, and freedom to serve in the armed forces or hold political office.
1960: Indus Waters Treaty
The treaty negotiated by the World Bank was signed by the two countries in September 1960 to manage the waters of the Indus and its six tributaries flowing to Pakistan. India was allocated the use of water from three eastern rivers바카라”Sutlej, Beas and Ravi바카라”while Pakistan was granted the three western rivers바카라”Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. Neither of the countries have the provision to suspend or terminate the treaty unilaterally.
1966: Tashkent Declaration
Signed on January 10, 1966, it ended the August 1965-September 1965 war between India and Pakistan. The accord was signed by Indian PM Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan바카라™s President Mohammad Ayub Khan. At Tashkent, the two leaders expressed their resolve to restore peaceful relations between their countries and to promote understanding between their citizens.
1972: Shimla Agreement
This peace treaty was signed by Indian PM Indira Gandhi and Pakistan바카라™s President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, on July 2, 1972. It was a direct consequence of the 1971 India-Pakistan War that ended with the creation of Bangladesh. The Shimla Agreement aimed to normalise relations and work for a durable peace in the sub-continent. Under the agreement, the original Ceasefire Line was formalised as the Line of Control (LoC).
1999: Lahore Declaration
This declaration was signed by the then prime ministers of India and Pakistan, A.B. Vajpayee and Nawaz Sharif, in Lahore, on February 21, 1999. It aimed to be a vision for peace and stability between the two countries. It also meant to reiterate the determination towards implementing the Shimla Agreement in letter and spirit. There have been several attempts at dialogue between the two countries over the years. In 2015, Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Lahore in Pakistan and was greeted by his Pakistani counterpart Nawaz Sharif. However, the bilateral talks between the two countries stopped after a series of attacks between 2016 to 2019 in Pathankot, Uri, and Pulwama.
2021: Ceasefire Agreement
The Indian government바카라™s statement released on February 25, 2021, stated that both countries바카라™ Director Generals of Military Operations (DGMOs) had held discussions over hotline contact, reviewing the situation. At the end of the backchannel diplomacy, India and Pakistan vowed strict observance of all agreements, ceasefire and understandings along the LoC and all other sectors with effect from midnight on February 24-25, 2021.
(Compiled by Ainnie Arif)
This article is part of Outlook바카라™s 1 June 2025 issue, 'Gated Neighbourhood', which examines the state of diplomacy, media, and democracy in the wake of the ceasefire. It appeared in print as 'Here, And There.'
